From Face-to-Face to Push-to-Web: Methodological Lessons from the Transition of the “Social Survey Austria”

Matthias Penker University of Graz, Austria
Anja Eder University of Graz, Austria
Markus Hadler University of Graz, Austria


Numerous national and international survey programs, including general population surveys, have been shifting their mode of data collection from face-to-face to self-completion designs. Push-to-web designs are a particularly promising approach that, however, also introduces methodical challenges. In this paper, we address several of these challenges by providing in-depth empirical analyses of selection and measurement effects from a cross-sectional and longitudinal perspective (time trends across years and survey modes). We use data from the Social Survey Austria (SSA) 2018, 2023 and 2024, including questions from the Austrian implementation of the International Social Survey Programme (ISSP). The survey transitioned from Computer-Assisted Personal …


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Effects of QR codes in a political science probability-based web survey

Oliver Lipps FORS (Swiss Centre of Expertise in the Social Sciences) and University of Berne, Switzerland
Anke Tresch FORS and University of Lausanne, Switzerland
Louis Durussel FORS, Switzerland


In this article, we use a probability-based, 30-minute web survey on political behavior to test effects of QR codes in mail invitations. As expected, we find a strong increase in mobile phone use compared to computer use. However, there is no difference in response rates, sample composition, response speed or response quality. This suggests that part of the sample is switching from computer to mobile phone, with no device effect. Importantly, the use of a QR code, which may give the impression of a short survey, led mobile phone users to perceive the survey as too long. This mismatch between …


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Who are the online panelists and why they cannot represent the general population Special issue

Stéphane Legleye Université Paris-Saclay, Inserm, CESP; Centre de Recherche en Économie and Statistique (CREST), France
Guillaume Chauvet Ecole Nationale de la Statistique et de l’Analyse de l’Information (ENSAI), CNRS and Université de Rennes, France
Thomas Merly-Alpa - Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques (Insee), France
Noémie Soullier - Santé publique France, France


The vast majority of Internet surveys are conducted using “online” panels (known as access panels, online or opt-in panels). As non-probability samples, access panel surveys have been questioned based on general theoretical arguments and empirical studies. Although convincing, these theoretical arguments cannot rule out the possibility that a specific survey on a specific access panel may produce results that are very close to those of a competing, high-quality probability survey. On the other hand, empirical studies are conducted on a limited set of panels and do not inform on the very nature of panelists in general that explains the biases …


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Challenges Conducting Cognitive Interviews in Low and Middle Income Countries: A Case Study with Older Adults in Lebanon

Alexandra Abi Nassif American University of Beirut, Lebanon
Mayssan Kabalan American University of Beirut, Lebanon
Carlos Mendes de Leon Georgetown University, USA
Julie de Jong ICF International, USA
Frederick Conrad * University of Michigan, USA

* Corresponding author
Note: A. Abi Nassif & M. Kabalan contributed equally to this work.


The global increase in population ageing, especially in Low and Middle Income Countries (LMICs), has created greater need for population-based surveys that document the health and social requirements of older adults in this context. The surveys fielded in response to this need ask questions adapted from ongoing surveys in High Income Countries; hence it is important to pretest the adapted questions for interpretability and cultural appropriateness using methods such as cognitive interviewing. The aim of this paper is to highlight challenges in the administration of cognitive interviews in LMICs with older adults, based on our pretest of a new population …


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A myriad of options: Validity and comparability of alternative international education variables

Silke L. Schneider GESIS - Leibniz Institute for the Social Sciences, Germany
Julian Urban GESIS - Leibniz Institute for the Social Sciences & Trier University, Germany


Education is a key variable in survey-based research, impacting various outcomes and serving as a cornerstone in social stratification research. However, measuring education in cross-national surveys is challenging due to the complexity and variability of educational systems across countries. For comparative research, the education variable does not only need to be valid, but also comparable across countries, which implies a similar degree of validity in different countries. Simultaneously, education measures need to be parsimonious, especially for self-administered surveys. This study, expanding on previous research, evaluates the validity and comparability of 16 alternative education coding specifications using nearly 400 dependent variables …


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The MAUP Effect: Spatial Scale and the Reliability of Segregation Indices

Hinrich Wildfang FOM University of Applied Sciences, Germany


This research note examines the implications of the modifiable areal unit problem (MAUP) for the measurement of ethnic segregation in Hamburg, Germany, utilizing 2011 census data and a simulation-based approach that incorporates 10 distinct spatial operationalizations. The results indicate that spatially adjusted global segregation estimates demonstrate a marked resilience to MAUP, despite the correlations between German and foreign populations exhibiting pronounced volatility, which undermines the reliability and comparability of the findings. Moreover, local segregation measures are found to be acutely sensitive to scale and zoning choices, particularly in areas distinguished by heterogeneous distributions of characteristics. In contrast, regions exhibiting homogeneous …


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Mitigating Fraud in Incentivized Online Surveys: Lessons from Facebook Recruitment in Nigeria

Arnim Langer KU Leuven, Belgium
Lucas Leopold KU Leuven, Belgium
Bart Meuleman KU Leuven, Belgium & University of Bremen, Germany
Line Kuppens University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Abhishegh Menon KU Leuven, Belgium


In this paper we document our experience with conducting the Perceptions of Inequality and Redistribution Survey (PIRS), which is an online, multi-round survey conducted among Nigerian adults who were recruited via a Facebook ad campaign. The paper discusses our initial and unsuccessful recruitment strategy as well as our subsequent revised strategy in which we were able to effectively address the problems and pitfalls which caused our initial recruitment strategy to be unsuccessful. By discussing both strategies in detail, we provide original methodological and practical insights into how best to conduct online surveys with compensation in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) …


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Examining Predictors of Unsuccessful Mail Delivery for a National Address-Based Sample During the COVID-19 Pandemic

Raphael Nishimura University of Michigan, USA
Rebecca Gatward - University of Michigan, USA
Brady T. West University of Michigan, USA
Htay-Wah Saw University of Michigan, USA


Many surveys have changed modes because of the COVID-19 pandemic. Surveys using mailed letters and/or reminders may have been adversely affected by staff shortages affecting the delivery times of the United States Postal Service (USPS). In this study, we analysed daily USPS mail delivery reports for each of 21 National Distribution Centers (NDCs) for two specific mailings that were sent to a national probability sample of addresses in 2020. We linked concurrent aggregate rates of COVID-19 infection and mortality to each of the NDCs and examined the variability in cumulative delivery rates across the NDCs as a function of these …


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